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Soil biota multiply rapidly when organic material, roots, and plant litter, their food source, are available and the soil is moist and warm. Seasonal patterns of biological activity coincide with plant growth stages, litter fall, and root die-off. To be active, bacteria require films of water in soil pores, whereas fungi can function in drier conditions. When the soil is too dry, bacteria and fungi become less active or temporarily shut down, protozoa form dormant cysts, and the number of most other organisms declines. When the soil is saturated and anaerobic, the number of denitrifying bacteria increases. Organisms affect each other through predation and competition for food and space. Small soil pores can restrict the movement of large soil organisms. Different types of vegetation produce different types of litter and plant residue and thus provide different food sources for soil biota. Changes in the vegetation or the pattern of plant distribution affect the soil organisms.

Grazing.—Proper management of the plant community is the best strategy for maintaining the benefits of the soil food web. Plant production and the supply of organic matter can be maintained or enhanced by timely grazing, the proper frequency of grazing, and control of the amount of vegetation removed. If the plant community is overgrazed, a reduction in the amount of surface plant material and roots will result in less food for soil organisms. As biological activity decreases, a downward spiral of the important functions of soil organisms results in a lower content of organic matter and impedes nutrient cycling, water infiltration, and water storage. Heavy grazing also can reduce the abundance of nitrogen-fixing plants, causing a decrease in the supply of nitrogen for the entire plant community.

Erosion.—Erosion removes or redistributes the surface layer of the soil, the layer with the greatest concentration of soil organisms, organic matter, and plant nutrients. Runoff and wind erosion redistribute litter from one area of rangeland to a surrounding area. The loss of organic matter reduces the activity of soil biota in the areas from which the litter has been removed.

Compaction by grazing animals and vehicles.—Soil compaction reduces the larger pores and pathways, thus reducing the amount of habitat for nematodes and the larger soil organisms. Compaction can also cause the soil to become anaerobic, increasing losses of nitrogen to the atmosphere.

Fire and pest control.—Fire can kill some soil organisms and reduce their food source while also increasing the availability of some nutrients. Pesticides that kill above-ground insects can also kill beneficial soil insects. Herbicides and foliar insecticides applied at recommended rates have a smaller impact on soil organisms. Fungicides and fumigants have a much greater impact on the soil organisms.

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Soil biota, the biologically active powerhouse of soil, include an incredible diversity of organisms. Tons of soil biota, including micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi, and algae) and soil “animals” (protozoa, nematodes, mites, springtails, spiders, insects, and earthworms), can live in an acre of soil and are more diverse than the community of plants and animals above ground. Soil biota are concentrated in plant litter, the upper few inches of soil, and along roots. Soil organisms interact with one another, with plant roots, and with their environment, forming the soil food web.

As soil organisms consume organic matter and each other, nutrients and energy are exchanged through the food web and are made available to plants. Each soil organism plays a role in the decomposition of plant residue, dead roots, and animal remains. The larger soil organisms, such as millipedes and earthworms, shred dead leaves and residue, mix them with the soil, and make organic material more accessible to immobile bacteria. Earthworms can completely mix the top 6 inches of a humid grassland soil in 10 to 20 years. Ants and termites mix and tunnel through soils in areas of arid and semiarid rangeland.

Predators in the soil food web include scorpions, centipedes, spiders, mites, some ants, insects, and beetles. They control the population of soil biota. The smaller organisms, including mites, springtails, nematodes, and one-celled protozoa, graze on bacteria and fungi. Other organisms feed on dead roots, shredded residue, and the fecal by-products of the larger organisms. The smallest soil organisms, microscopic bacteria and fungi, make up the bulk of the biota in the soil. They finish the process of decomposition by breaking down the remaining material and storing its energy and nutrients in their cells. Algae and fungi are the first organisms to colonize rock and form “new soil” by releasing substances that disintegrate rock.


Visit the Ecomerge website to learn more about organic gardening soil and how to preserve soil at home.

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The development of objectives relative to soil crusts is an important part of rangeland management. Biological crusts protect the soil from water erosion and wind erosion. Physical crusts can protect soils from wind erosion as effectively as biological crusts, except on very coarse textured soils. In the more humid areas, it generally is desirable to break up physical crusts and thus improve seedling emergence and plant establishment; however, desirable biological crusts can be destroyed when the physical crusts are broken. Adequate organic matter, seeds of desirable species, and a period of rest are needed for successful establishment of plants after crusts are broken.

Recovery of biological crusts may take decades to hundreds of years. Therefore, preventing degradation by minimizing disturbance is important. Biological crusts that are in areas of low rainfall, are on coarse textured soils with low stability, and are in areas with a large amount of bare ground are most susceptible to frequent disturbances and have the longest recovery times. Biological crusts of all types are least susceptible to disturbance when the soil is frozen or is covered with snow. Biological crusts on sandy soils are less susceptible to disturbance when the soils are wet or moist, and the ones on clayey soils are less susceptible when the soils are dry. Trampling or grazing when the soil surface is very wet or ponded should be avoided because it can displace and bury the biological crust.

The following management strategies apply to land used for grazing, wildlife habitat, or recreation:

• Maintain the optimum amount of live vegetation, litter, and biological crust relative to the site potential in order to maintain the content of organic matter and soil structure and control erosion.

• In humid areas improve soil structure and plant establishment by incorporating organic matter into the soil while breaking up a physical crust.

• Defer grazing and recreational use during periods when biological crusts are most susceptible to physical disturbances.

• Use prescribed burning according to the needs of each site to prevent fuel buildup that can produce hot fires followed by severe erosion.

• Control the establishment and spread of invasive annual plants that can carry fire.



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The stability of aggregates is affected by soil properties that change relatively little and by properties that change in response to changes in vegetation and management. As a result, measurements of the aggregate stability of a given soil should be compared only with measurements for the same or similar soils with similar textures.

Soil properties.—Soil properties that change relatively little include texture and type of clay. Expansion and contraction of clay particles as they become moist and then dry can shift and crack the soil mass and create or break apart aggregates. Calcium in the soil generally promotes aggregation, whereas sodium promotes dispersion. The quantity of calcium and sodium is specific to each type of soil.

Vegetation.—Management affects the plant community. Changes in the composition, distribution, and productivity of plant species affect aggregation-related soil properties, including aggregate stability, the amount and type of organic matter in the soil, and the composition and size of the soil biotic community. The amount of plant cover and the size of bare patches also are important. The centers of large bare spaces receive few inputs of organic matter and are susceptible to degradation.

Grazing.—Disturbance of the soil surface by grazing animals has both beneficial and detrimental effects on aggregate stability. It breaks the soil apart, exposing the organic matter “glues” to degradation and loss by erosion; however, it also can incorporate litter and standing dead vegetation into the soil, increasing the content of organic matter in the soil. Heavy grazing that significantly reduces plant production disrupts the formation of aggregates by reducing the inputs of organic matter. Grazing is more likely to increase aggregate stability in areas where an unusually large amount of standing dead material is on the soil surface and the risk of erosion is not increased by removal of plant material and disturbance of the soil surface.

You can improve the productivity of rangeland through good range management which normally increases aggregate stability. A few practices that you could use include:

• Maintain the optimum amount of live vegetation and litter
in order to maintain the content of organic matter and soil
structure and control erosion.
• Decrease the number and size of bare areas.
• Minimize soil surface disturbances, especially in arid
areas.

Try putting these practices into action on land that you have access too.

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Stable aggregates are critical to erosion resistance, water availability, and root growth. Soils with stable aggregates at the surface are more resistant to water erosion than other soils, both because soil particles are less likely to be detached and because the rate of water infiltration tends to be higher on well aggregated soils. Unstable aggregates disperse during rainstorms, then form a hard physical crust when the soil dries. Physical crusts restrict seedling emergence because they have few pores for air and water entry into the soil. The crusts result in more runoff, more erosion, and less available water. Aggregated soils hold more water than other soils and provide pores for root growth. Large, stable aggregates can resist degradation and removal by wind better than small, weak ones.

Aggregate stability is a good indicator of the content of organic matter, biological activity, and nutrient cycling in the soil. The amount of organic matter increases after the decomposition of litter and dead roots begins. Stable aggregates result from this process because soil biota produce material that binds particles together. “New” organic matter stabilizes the larger aggregates, while the smaller aggregates are more likely to be bound by “old” organic matter. New organic matter holds and can release more nutrients. Changes in aggregate stability may serve as early indicators of recovery or degradation of soils and, more generally, of ecosystems. Perennial plants can often persist long after the soil and plant community have become too degraded to support.


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What is infiltration?

The process of water soaking into the soil is infiltration. “Infiltration rate” is simply how fast water enters the soil and is usually measured in inches or millimeters per hour. This rate depends on soil texture (amount of sand, silt, and clay) and on soil structure. Soils in good condition have well developed structure and continuous pores to the surface. As a result, water from rainfall or snowmelt readily enters these soils.

Why is infiltration important?

Soil is a reservoir that stores water for plant growth. The water in soil is replenished by infiltration. The infiltration rate can be restricted by poor management. Under these conditions, the water does not readily enter the soil and it moves downslope as runoff or ponds on the surface, where it evaporates. Thus, less water is stored in the soil for plant growth, and plant production decreases, resulting in less organic matter in the soil and weakened soil structure that can further decrease the infiltration rate.

Runoff can cause soil erosion and the formation of gullies. It also carries nutrients and organic matter, which, together with sediment, reduce water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. The sediment reduces the capacity of reservoirs to store water. Excessive runoff can cause flooding, erode streambanks, and damage roads. Runoff from adjacent slopes can saturate soils in low areas or can create ponded areas, thus killing upland plants. Evaporation in the ponded areas reduces the amount of water available to plants.

Please manage your soil properly in order to prevent the restriction of infiltration. Attempt to deter runoff that may cause gullies and other types of damage.


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Arizona State University (ASU) has developed a new geographical model to help determine the amount of man caused soil erosion. The model uses archaeological records to find out how human interactions effect the environment.

Blog Guest Piece


Organic Gardening Soil

All gardeners want to have the most perfect, most beautiful flowers and vegetables. If your aim is to win the best flower or the best tasting veggies at the show or just to savor a garden loaded with beautiful flowers, using organic gardening soil is the initial step you can take to be sure your garden soil is the best it can be.

Organic gardening is the activity of growing vegetables, plants, trees, flowers, vines, fruits, bushes, shrubs and everything else you are able to consider in an entirely natural way. Put differently that would mean no toxic substances, pesticides or chemicals are used in the whole gardening operation. Organic gardening is mostly practiced for fruit, vegetable and herb gardening. Folks do not wish to have chemicals and pesticides on the foods they consume. This gardening method begins with the preparing of your soil. Because you will not be applying chemical fertilizers in an organic garden, you will want to be sure your soil is as good as possible, so that it can supply all the nutrition your plants will need as they mature. Getting an organic garden soil requires a little time and exertion, but it is truly worth it after it is accomplished.

You can make organic soil by blending in healthy fertile compost material. Many organic gardeners like to make their own compost using specialized bins or vessels. In many regions though, you will be able to purchase compost matter from recycling centers or garden centers. It's reasonably easy to get a jump on making compost though, even in absence of a composting bin. What you want to do is add a few items to your garden soil, and allow those additives to sit for some weeks prior to planting. Anything you put into the garden soil had better be natural though, since the nutrients are made as the organic items break down.

Number one, you want to loosen the soil in your garden bed. Second add some organic matter to the bed like used coffee or tea grounds, sawdust, ripped up newspaper, ashes from the fireplace or fruit and vegetable things from your kitchen. Try adding one or more of these items at once, however you do not have to add all at once or if you don't have them available. If you make the material smaller prior to adding it to the garden bed the quicker it will become compost for you. Therefore if you are using kitchen scraps for example, try cutting or grating them into tinier bits before pitching them into the garden bed. After supplying the organic material to your garden bed, work the soil some more so those additional items are integrated in the soil and covered properly. Next, about two to three times each week, water the bed, then move it about a little again. In approximately three to four weeks, your soil should be ready to begin placing plants and/or seeds in. If you ready your organic garden area in the Fall, ahead of the first hard frost or freeze hits, the soil will be much more fertile and more prepared for planting when Spring arrives.

The organic gardening method is rather easy to understand, every ingredient of nature like plants, animals, insects and soil have to work together to produce a natural sequence in the garden and function together. Jim's articles are from extensive research on each of his topics and life-long experience. You can learn more of compost, soil and organic fertilizers by visiting: compost.

Jim Ellison

Agriculture Deputy Secretary Kathleen Merrigan has announced that soil erosion on cropland declined by more than 40 percent during the past 25 years, while more than one-third of all development of U.S. land occurred during the same period.


The information was contained in the latest National Resource Inventory (NRI) for Non-Federal Lands, which was released at an event marking the 75th Anniversary of USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), the agency charged with ensuring private lands are conserved, restored, and more resilient to environmental challenges. To see key findings please visit this website.


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Sometimes success can't be measured, or may even go un-noticed. Luckily in the case of environmental sustainability, the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) makes sure that won't happen.

A new study by the NRCS finds that farmers and ranchers are producing more while using less. This is great news because it is helping to reduce the environmental footprint when it comes to food and fiber production in the US.

The study also found that soil erosion is continuing to decline because of more sustainable practices. The study finds that there has been a "50 percent decline in erosion of cropland by wind and water since 1982."

Small steps make big differences in creating sustainable practices. What are you doing to be more sustainable in your everyday life? We want you to post the steps you are taking to do your part in preventing soil erosion. Who knows, maybe you'll inspire somebody reading your comments to incorporate the same practice in their everyday life.

Remember, one small step can snowball into global change.

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http://agwired.com/2010/04/29/american-agricultures-environmental-success/

A number of farming practices are currently being implemented in the developed world to limit soil degradation, including using drip irrigation, planting cover crops at the end of the growing season, applying manure or other organic material to the soil, rotating crops, practicing contour cultivation, and using no-till methods. The practice of organic agriculture, which eschews pesticides and synthetic fertilizers and optimizes long-term soil fertility, is becoming more prevalent to meet consumer demand. In parts of the developing world, grassroots community action is being taken. In one region of Burkina Faso, Africa, basins are dug during the dry season and filled with compost or manure to reclaim degraded land and restore soil fertility. Sorghum yields there have increased by 400 percent. If you are not familiar with how to conserve your soil then please visit this website that can teach you how in seven easy and simple steps. Thank you for caring!

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Excessive application of chemicals by farmers or spills and leaks of petroleum products and toxic substances by other users kill soil organisms. Soil is a complex living food web, where a variety of organisms interact to process organic matter, recycle nutrients, and nurture plants. Please use organic fertilizers and organic methods for pest management.

According to soil scientist Elaine Ingham at Oregon State University, just one gram of healthy agricultural soil contains around 100 yards of threadlike fungal material, 100 million bacteria, tens of thousands of one-celled organisms called protozoa, and up to 2000 tiny worms called nematodes. Growth of plants depends upon the presence of these microorganisms, which interact to retain nutrients and make nitrogen available. Higher up the food chain are the springtails and mites that prey on fungi. Larger still are the earthworms, ants, termites, millipedes, and beetles that fragment the organic debris, aerate the soil, and form channels for infiltration of water.

If you want healthier plants then support your soil food web by putting organic matter, which increases the population of beneficial soil organisms, in your soil medium. Please support the fight against soil quality and erosion by visiting http://www.basic-info-4-organic-fertilizers.com/soilorganisms.html where you can find lots of detail information about the kinds of beneficial soil organisms.

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Approximately 65 percent of the earth’s soils are degraded to some extent. The primary causes are overgrazing, removal of vegetation, and agricultural practices. When land is overgrazed or deforested or when crops are harvested, there is often not enough plant litter remaining to protect and nourish the soil. Soil organisms die, resulting in a loss of fertility. Sparse cover allows raindrops to erode the surface, loosening the soil’s structure, freeing up fine clay particles, and transporting them downhill. Repeated mechanical tilling changes the structure of the soil so it erodes more easily, and compaction by heavy farm equipment reduces water infiltration and increases runoff. Nutrients are also lost when farmers fail to allow fallow periods or to replenish the soil.


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The rate of soil erosion now vastly exceeds soil formation. Soil is washed away ten times faster than it is replenished in the US and 50 times faster in China and India. In some areas of the Great Plains, agricultural topsoil has decreased in thickness from 12 inches to less than four inches. As a result of erosion in the last 40 years, 30 percent of the world's arable land has become unproductive. Just as it takes hundreds of years for a clear-cut forest to return to an old growth state, an inch of topsoil can take 500 years to form, and at least six inches are needed for crop production.

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Humans commonly partake in activities that lead to degradation of the worlds land resources. These resources are the basis of sustained food security. According to The Global Assessment of Human-Induced Soil Degradation (GLASOD) "damage has occurred on 15 percent of the world's total land area, mainly resulting from erosion, nutrient decline, salinization and physical compaction." The results of these impacts has led to reduction in crop yields. The impact of degraded soil may have the greatest affect on countries who are dependent on agriculture for their incomes.

Increases in grain production brought about by irrigation and synthetic fertilizer-pesticide inputs have peaked and begun declining. As consumption surpasses production, the world's stocks of stored grain have been falling relative to each year's use. When supply can no longer meet demand, free market price competition may starve the poor.

Biodiversity and especially the maintenance of wild relatives of domesticated species is essential to sustainable agriculture.



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