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Soil biota multiply rapidly when organic material, roots, and plant litter, their food source, are available and the soil is moist and warm. Seasonal patterns of biological activity coincide with plant growth stages, litter fall, and root die-off. To be active, bacteria require films of water in soil pores, whereas fungi can function in drier conditions. When the soil is too dry, bacteria and fungi become less active or temporarily shut down, protozoa form dormant cysts, and the number of most other organisms declines. When the soil is saturated and anaerobic, the number of denitrifying bacteria increases. Organisms affect each other through predation and competition for food and space. Small soil pores can restrict the movement of large soil organisms. Different types of vegetation produce different types of litter and plant residue and thus provide different food sources for soil biota. Changes in the vegetation or the pattern of plant distribution affect the soil organisms.

Grazing.—Proper management of the plant community is the best strategy for maintaining the benefits of the soil food web. Plant production and the supply of organic matter can be maintained or enhanced by timely grazing, the proper frequency of grazing, and control of the amount of vegetation removed. If the plant community is overgrazed, a reduction in the amount of surface plant material and roots will result in less food for soil organisms. As biological activity decreases, a downward spiral of the important functions of soil organisms results in a lower content of organic matter and impedes nutrient cycling, water infiltration, and water storage. Heavy grazing also can reduce the abundance of nitrogen-fixing plants, causing a decrease in the supply of nitrogen for the entire plant community.

Erosion.—Erosion removes or redistributes the surface layer of the soil, the layer with the greatest concentration of soil organisms, organic matter, and plant nutrients. Runoff and wind erosion redistribute litter from one area of rangeland to a surrounding area. The loss of organic matter reduces the activity of soil biota in the areas from which the litter has been removed.

Compaction by grazing animals and vehicles.—Soil compaction reduces the larger pores and pathways, thus reducing the amount of habitat for nematodes and the larger soil organisms. Compaction can also cause the soil to become anaerobic, increasing losses of nitrogen to the atmosphere.

Fire and pest control.—Fire can kill some soil organisms and reduce their food source while also increasing the availability of some nutrients. Pesticides that kill above-ground insects can also kill beneficial soil insects. Herbicides and foliar insecticides applied at recommended rates have a smaller impact on soil organisms. Fungicides and fumigants have a much greater impact on the soil organisms.

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Soil biota, the biologically active powerhouse of soil, include an incredible diversity of organisms. Tons of soil biota, including micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi, and algae) and soil “animals” (protozoa, nematodes, mites, springtails, spiders, insects, and earthworms), can live in an acre of soil and are more diverse than the community of plants and animals above ground. Soil biota are concentrated in plant litter, the upper few inches of soil, and along roots. Soil organisms interact with one another, with plant roots, and with their environment, forming the soil food web.

As soil organisms consume organic matter and each other, nutrients and energy are exchanged through the food web and are made available to plants. Each soil organism plays a role in the decomposition of plant residue, dead roots, and animal remains. The larger soil organisms, such as millipedes and earthworms, shred dead leaves and residue, mix them with the soil, and make organic material more accessible to immobile bacteria. Earthworms can completely mix the top 6 inches of a humid grassland soil in 10 to 20 years. Ants and termites mix and tunnel through soils in areas of arid and semiarid rangeland.

Predators in the soil food web include scorpions, centipedes, spiders, mites, some ants, insects, and beetles. They control the population of soil biota. The smaller organisms, including mites, springtails, nematodes, and one-celled protozoa, graze on bacteria and fungi. Other organisms feed on dead roots, shredded residue, and the fecal by-products of the larger organisms. The smallest soil organisms, microscopic bacteria and fungi, make up the bulk of the biota in the soil. They finish the process of decomposition by breaking down the remaining material and storing its energy and nutrients in their cells. Algae and fungi are the first organisms to colonize rock and form “new soil” by releasing substances that disintegrate rock.


Visit the Ecomerge website to learn more about organic gardening soil and how to preserve soil at home.

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The development of objectives relative to soil crusts is an important part of rangeland management. Biological crusts protect the soil from water erosion and wind erosion. Physical crusts can protect soils from wind erosion as effectively as biological crusts, except on very coarse textured soils. In the more humid areas, it generally is desirable to break up physical crusts and thus improve seedling emergence and plant establishment; however, desirable biological crusts can be destroyed when the physical crusts are broken. Adequate organic matter, seeds of desirable species, and a period of rest are needed for successful establishment of plants after crusts are broken.

Recovery of biological crusts may take decades to hundreds of years. Therefore, preventing degradation by minimizing disturbance is important. Biological crusts that are in areas of low rainfall, are on coarse textured soils with low stability, and are in areas with a large amount of bare ground are most susceptible to frequent disturbances and have the longest recovery times. Biological crusts of all types are least susceptible to disturbance when the soil is frozen or is covered with snow. Biological crusts on sandy soils are less susceptible to disturbance when the soils are wet or moist, and the ones on clayey soils are less susceptible when the soils are dry. Trampling or grazing when the soil surface is very wet or ponded should be avoided because it can displace and bury the biological crust.

The following management strategies apply to land used for grazing, wildlife habitat, or recreation:

• Maintain the optimum amount of live vegetation, litter, and biological crust relative to the site potential in order to maintain the content of organic matter and soil structure and control erosion.

• In humid areas improve soil structure and plant establishment by incorporating organic matter into the soil while breaking up a physical crust.

• Defer grazing and recreational use during periods when biological crusts are most susceptible to physical disturbances.

• Use prescribed burning according to the needs of each site to prevent fuel buildup that can produce hot fires followed by severe erosion.

• Control the establishment and spread of invasive annual plants that can carry fire.



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Physical crusts form when organic matter is depleted from the surface layer, soil aggregates become weak, and raindrops disperse the soil into individual particles that clog soil pores, seal the surface, and form a layer that is dense when dry. A physical crust consisting of numerous thin bands can form when sediment from erosion is carried downslope and buries the soil surface. Physical crusts are more common on silty, clayey, and loamy soils and are relatively thin or weakly expressed, if present at all, on sandy soils. Soils with a high content of sodium disperse readily in water and are more susceptible to crust formation than other soils.

To examine a crust, lift the soil surface with a knife tip and look for cohesive layers or thin bands parallel to the soil surface. These layers have no apparent binding by visible strands of organic material, such as cyanobacteria. Fragments of physical crusts disperse or “melt” when placed in water. A vesicular crust is a type of physical crust with many small, unconnected air pockets or spaces similar to those in a sponge.

A biological crust occupies a large amount of the surface of calcareous and gypsiferous soils. Soil texture, moisture, temperature, season of precipitation, and history of disturbance largely determine the dominant organisms in the crust. For example, moss tends to be dominant in the Columbia Basin, whereas cyanobacteria and lichen are dominant in the Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuahuan Deserts.

Prevent crust formation by keeping organic matter on your garden. Adding a healthy layer of organic matter to your garden from time to time will help prevent soil erosion.



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Confusion reigns over certified and uncertified oils

The stability of aggregates is affected by soil properties that change relatively little and by properties that change in response to changes in vegetation and management. As a result, measurements of the aggregate stability of a given soil should be compared only with measurements for the same or similar soils with similar textures.

Soil properties.—Soil properties that change relatively little include texture and type of clay. Expansion and contraction of clay particles as they become moist and then dry can shift and crack the soil mass and create or break apart aggregates. Calcium in the soil generally promotes aggregation, whereas sodium promotes dispersion. The quantity of calcium and sodium is specific to each type of soil.

Vegetation.—Management affects the plant community. Changes in the composition, distribution, and productivity of plant species affect aggregation-related soil properties, including aggregate stability, the amount and type of organic matter in the soil, and the composition and size of the soil biotic community. The amount of plant cover and the size of bare patches also are important. The centers of large bare spaces receive few inputs of organic matter and are susceptible to degradation.

Grazing.—Disturbance of the soil surface by grazing animals has both beneficial and detrimental effects on aggregate stability. It breaks the soil apart, exposing the organic matter “glues” to degradation and loss by erosion; however, it also can incorporate litter and standing dead vegetation into the soil, increasing the content of organic matter in the soil. Heavy grazing that significantly reduces plant production disrupts the formation of aggregates by reducing the inputs of organic matter. Grazing is more likely to increase aggregate stability in areas where an unusually large amount of standing dead material is on the soil surface and the risk of erosion is not increased by removal of plant material and disturbance of the soil surface.

You can improve the productivity of rangeland through good range management which normally increases aggregate stability. A few practices that you could use include:

• Maintain the optimum amount of live vegetation and litter
in order to maintain the content of organic matter and soil
structure and control erosion.
• Decrease the number and size of bare areas.
• Minimize soil surface disturbances, especially in arid
areas.

Try putting these practices into action on land that you have access too.

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Stable aggregates are critical to erosion resistance, water availability, and root growth. Soils with stable aggregates at the surface are more resistant to water erosion than other soils, both because soil particles are less likely to be detached and because the rate of water infiltration tends to be higher on well aggregated soils. Unstable aggregates disperse during rainstorms, then form a hard physical crust when the soil dries. Physical crusts restrict seedling emergence because they have few pores for air and water entry into the soil. The crusts result in more runoff, more erosion, and less available water. Aggregated soils hold more water than other soils and provide pores for root growth. Large, stable aggregates can resist degradation and removal by wind better than small, weak ones.

Aggregate stability is a good indicator of the content of organic matter, biological activity, and nutrient cycling in the soil. The amount of organic matter increases after the decomposition of litter and dead roots begins. Stable aggregates result from this process because soil biota produce material that binds particles together. “New” organic matter stabilizes the larger aggregates, while the smaller aggregates are more likely to be bound by “old” organic matter. New organic matter holds and can release more nutrients. Changes in aggregate stability may serve as early indicators of recovery or degradation of soils and, more generally, of ecosystems. Perennial plants can often persist long after the soil and plant community have become too degraded to support.


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Soil aggregates are groups of soil particles that are bound to each other more strongly than to adjacent particles. Organic matter “glues” produced when soil biota break down dead roots and litter hold the particles together. Threadlike strands of fungi also bind particles into aggregates. Microscopic aggregates are the building blocks of larger aggregates. The larger aggregates and the arrangement of them, along with chemical attraction between particles, determine soil structure. The structure of the surface layer commonly is granular or blocky, but a degraded surface layer can be crusted, platy, or structureless. Pores important for the movement of air, water, and plant nutrients occur within and between aggregates. Pores also provide thoroughfares for soil organisms.

Aggregate stability refers to the ability of aggregates to resist degradation. Additions of organic matter to the soil enhance the stability of aggregates. Raindrops, flowing water, and windblown sand grains can break apart soil aggregates, exposing organic matter to decomposition and loss. Physical disturbances, such as vehicle traffic and trampling, can break down soil structure. Soils can resist degradation differently when wet or dry. For example, dense, cloddy soils can be very stable when dry but unstable when wet.

Listen to this short video that explains soil aggregates.


Soil & Compost:
What are soil 'aggregates'?

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The amount of organic matter in the soil is a balance between additions of plant and animal materials and losses through decomposition and erosion.

Environmental factors interacting over time affect the amount of organic matter in soil. Rainfall and temperature affect plant productivity and the rate of organic matter decomposition. Increasing levels of organic matter promote a higher waterholding capacity, which results in increased plant growth and thus an increased amount of organic matter and plant nutrients.

Roots are the primary source of organic matter. Dead roots and gelatinous materials exuded by plant roots as they grow through the soil are decomposed by soil organisms and converted into organic matter. Since much of what is produced above ground is lost through photo-oxidation, the amount of root production is very important. Every year, about 25 percent of the total root biomass in areas of tall prairie grasses dies and becomes available for incorporation into the soil as organic matter. In the drier areas, such as areas of short prairie grasses, about 50 percent of the root biomass becomes available, but the total amount is less than that in the areas of tall grasses.

Plant composition and distribution control the distribution of organic matter. The horizontal and depth distribution of roots, the distribution of plants across the landscape, and the susceptibility of roots to decay vary among species. The roots of forbs and shrubs generally contribute less organic matter to the surface layer of the soil than the roots of grasses. Changes in the composition of plant species, especially from grasses to shrubs, affect the contribution of roots to soil organic matter. The organic matter is enhanced by litter beneath shrubs in areas of arid and semiarid rangeland. Fire initially reduces the amount of plant residue added to the soil. If the fire results in a shift from shrubs to grasses, however, the long-term effect can be an increase in soil stability and organic matter.

Soil organisms break down litter, dead roots, and organic matter into smaller fragments and compounds. As they decompose organic matter, they convert nutrients into plant-available forms and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Warm, moist soil supports higher decomposition rates than waterlogged, dry, or cool soil.

Wind erosion and water erosion increase losses of organic matter. Erosion breaks down soil aggregates, exposing physically protected organic matter to decomposition and loss. Organic-rich soil from the surface layer is carried away by runoff or wind. Litter redistribution by wind or water from or to surrounding rangeland also affects the content of organic matter.

Grazing can change plant composition and distribution and increase or decrease the amount of organic matter in the soil. Grazing can increase the rate of root turnover, but overgrazing reduces the amount of plant energy available for the growth of new roots. Trampling by livestock can help to incorporate the plant material above the ground into the soil. In arid ecosystems, however, little plant material is available for incorporation. Trampling also breaks up soil aggregates, exposing organic matter to decomposition and loss through erosion.

Try some of the following management strategies in your garden this Summer. Your garden will thank you by providing you with a larger harvest. If the following information helps you please post a comment about it.

Management strategies

The following strategies can help to maintain the optimum content of organic matter in rangeland soils:

• Increase or maintain plant production.
• Promote the growth of species with high root production and promote a mix of species with different rooting depths and patterns.
• Promote the incorporation of above-ground plant material in moist plant communities with large amounts of standing plant material (e.g., areas of tall prairie grasses).
• Protect the soil from erosion by maintaining or increasing the plant cover and reducing the amount of bare soil.
• Properly manage grazing, fire, and vehicle use and thus promote the desired plant community and protect the soil
from erosion.


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What is soil organic matter?

Soil organic matter is carbon-rich material that includes plant, animal, and microbial residue in various stages of decomposition. Live soil organisms and plant roots are part of the carbon pool in soil but are not considered soil organic matter until they die and begin to decay. The quantity and composition of soil organic matter vary significantly among major ecosystems. Soil in arid, semiarid, and hot, humid regions commonly has less organic matter than soil in other environments. The total content of organic matter ranges from less than 0.5 to more than 8 percent in the surface layer of rangeland soils.

Soil organic matter includes three main components; light fraction, physically protected, and chemically stable. Light fraction is more biologically active than the other two and includes relatively fresh plant fragments. Physically protected organic matter is locked within aggregates of mineral particles, where it is protected from microbial decomposition. Chemically stable organic matter gives soil its dark color and is generally the largest pool of organic matter in soil. Physically protected organic matter may also be chemically stable.
Why is organic matter important?

Soil organic matter enhances soil functions and environmental quality because it:

• binds soil particles together into stable aggregates, thus improving porosity, infiltration, and root penetration and reducing runoff and erosion;
• enhances soil fertility and plant productivity by improving the ability of the soil to store and supply nutrients, water, and air;
• provides habitat and food for soil organisms;
• sequesters carbon from the atmosphere;
• reduces mineral crust formation and runoff; and
• reduces the negative water quality and environmental effects of pesticides, heavy metals, and other pollutants by actively trapping or transforming them.


Attempt to use organic matter in your soil. Try it out. It will help the garden produce a better plant. If you have ever used organic matter feel free to post a comment about your experiencing.



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The following features may indicate a compacted soil
layer:

• platy, blocky, dense, or massive appearance;
• significant resistance to penetration with a metal rod;
• high bulk density; and
• restricted, flattened, turned, horizontal, or stubby plant
roots.

Because some soils that are not compacted exhibit these features, refer to a soil survey report for information about the inherent characteristics of the soil. Each soil texture has a minimum bulk density (weight of soil divided by its volume) at which root-restricting conditions may occur, although the restriction also depends on the plant species.

Management strategies that minimize
compaction:

• Minimize grazing, recreational use, and vehicular traffic
when the soils are wet.
• Use only designated trails or roads; reduce the number of
trips.
• Do not harvest hay when the soils are wet.
• Maintain or increase the content of organic matter in the
soil by improving the plant cover and plant production.


Please put these tactics into action. Include the minimization of soil erosion in your daily lives.

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What is compaction?

Soil compaction occurs when moist or wet soil aggregates are pressed together and the pore space between them is reduced. Compaction changes soil structure, reduces the size and continuity of pores, and increases soil density (bulk density). Wheel traffic or pressure (weight per unit area) exerted on the soil surface by large animals, vehicles, and people can cause soil compaction. In areas of rangeland, compacted soil layers are generally at the soil surface or less than 6 inches below the surface, although they can be as deep as 2 feet under heavily used tracks and roads. Increases in density can be small to large.

When is compaction a problem?

Compaction changes several structural characteristics and functions of the soil. It is a problem when the increased soil density and the decreased pore space limit water infiltration, percolation, and storage; plant growth; or nutrient cycling.

Water movement and storage.—Compaction reduces the capacity of the soil to hold water and the rate of water movement through soil. It limits water infiltration and causes increased runoff and, in some areas, increased erosion. Compacted wheel tracks or trails can concentrate runoff that can create rills or gullies, especially on steep slopes. When the amount of water that enters the soil is reduced, less water is available for plant growth and percolation to deep root zones.

Water entering the soil can perch on a subsurface compacted layer, saturating the soil to or near the surface or ponding on the surface. This water readily evaporates. Compaction can increase the water-holding capacity of sandy soils. An increase in the amount of water stored near the soil surface and a decrease in the amount of water deeper in the soil may favor the shallower rooted annuals over the deeper rooted plant species, such as shrubs.

Plant growth.—Where soil density increases significantly, it limits plant growth by physically restricting root growth. Severe compaction can limit roots to the upper soil layers, effectively cutting off access to the water and nutrients stored deeper in the soil. Anaerobic conditions (lack of oxygen) can develop in or above the compacted layer during wet periods, further limiting root growth. Even in arid climates, anaerobic conditions can occur where water accumulates.

Nutrient cycling.—Compaction alters soil moisture and temperature, which control microbial activity in the soil and the release of nutrients to plants. Anaerobic conditions increase the loss of soil nitrogen through microbial activity. Compaction changes the depth and pattern of root growth. This change affects the contributions of roots to soil organic matter and nutrients. Compaction compresses the soil, reducing the number of large pores. This reduction can restrict the habitat for the larger soil organisms that play a role in nutrient cycling and thus can reduce the number of these organisms.

Please be aware of soil compaction. Take action by preventing compaction in your town. Read up about some causes, effects, and control techniques at this Website


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The soil and vegetation properties that currently limit infiltration and the potential for increasing the infiltration rate must be considered in any management plan. Where waterflow patterns have been altered by a shift in vegetation, such as a shift from grassland to open-canopy shrub land, restoration of higher infiltration rates may be difficult or take a long period, especially if depletion of organic matter and/or soil loss have occurred. Excessive grazing of forage can impair infiltration.

Management strategies include:
• Increase the amount of plant cover, especially of plants that have positive effects on infiltration.
• Decrease the extent of compaction by avoiding intensive grazing and the use of machinery when the soils are wet.
• Decrease the formation of physical crusts by maintaining or improving the cover of plants or litter and thus reducing the impact of raindrops.
• Increase aggregate stability by increasing the amount of organic matter added to the soil through residue decomposition and vigorous root growth.

Infiltration rate
The infiltration rate is generally highest when the soil is dry. As the soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate slows to the rate at which water moves through the most restrictive layer, such as a compacted layer or a layer of dense clay. Infiltration rates decline as water temperature approaches freezing. Little or no water penetrates the surface of frozen or saturated soils.

Vegetation
A high percentage of plant cover and large amounts of root biomass generally increase the infiltration rate. Different plant species have different effects on infiltration. The species that form a dense root mat can reduce the infiltration rate. In areas of arid and semiarid rangeland, the infiltration-limiting layer commonly is confined to the top few millimeters of the soil, particularly in the open spaces between plant canopies. These areas receive few inputs of organic matter, which build soil structure. Also, the impact of raindrops in these areas can degrade soil structure and form physical crusts.


Don't be afraid to practice these techniques. They will serve your soil right and you will reep all the benefits. Please tell your friends and family how infiltration affects them directly.

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What causes wind erosion?
Wind erosion can occur only when windspeed at the soil surface is sufficient to lift and transport soil particles. Moist soils and soils with stable aggregates or rock fragments are less likely to be eroded than other soils. Thick lichen crusts provide greater resistance to erosion than thin crusts. Sand moving across the soil surface wears away soil aggregates and thin crusts, causing more soil particles to become detached and to be blown away. A cover of plants disrupts the force of the wind.

Soils are more susceptible to wind erosion where disturbance exposes individual particles and soil aggregates to the wind. When physical or biological crusts are crushed or broken apart by such disturbances as heavy grazing, vehicle or foot traffic, and water erosion, particle movement begins at the lower windspeeds. The following conditions increase the susceptibility of the soil to wind erosion:

• crushed or broken soil surface crusts during windy periods;
• a reduction in the plant cover, biological crusts, and litter, resulting in bare soil;
• a decrease in the amount of organic matter in the soil, causing decreased aggregate stability; and
• long, unsheltered, smooth soil surfaces.


What are some indicators of wind erosion?

Erosion and the risk of erosion are difficult to measure directly. Other soil properties that affect erosion and can change with management, including soil surface stability, aggregate stability, and content of organic matter, can be measured. Measuring these properties can shed light on the susceptibility of a site to erosion. Comparing visual observations along with quantitative measurements to the conditions in the ecological site description or a reference area helps to provide information about soil surface stability and wind erosion.

The visual indicators used to identify past erosion include:

• bare soil,
• wind-scoured areas between plants,
• a drifted or rippled soil surface,
• loose sand on physical crusts,
• biological crusts buried by soil,
• pedestaled plants or rocks,
• exposed roots,
• soil deposition on the leeward side of plants and obstacles,
• litter movement to the leeward side of plants and obstacles,
• exposure of subsoil at the surface,
• reduced plant growth, and
• dust clouds.

When measured over time, the following indicators can be used to predict where accelerated erosion is likely to occur in the future:

• an increase in the amount of bare ground or in the size of bare patches,
• reduced soil surface stability, and
• a reduction in the amount of organic matter.


Please spend a moment taking a look at this webpage that shows hi def picture examples of recent dust storms in the US. It shows the mayhem that dust storms cause. Please be aware of wind erosion and how it affects the earths soil. Try and learn from our past so we don't have to repeat it. Thank You.

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Agriculture Deputy Secretary Kathleen Merrigan has announced that soil erosion on cropland declined by more than 40 percent during the past 25 years, while more than one-third of all development of U.S. land occurred during the same period.


The information was contained in the latest National Resource Inventory (NRI) for Non-Federal Lands, which was released at an event marking the 75th Anniversary of USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), the agency charged with ensuring private lands are conserved, restored, and more resilient to environmental challenges. To see key findings please visit this website.


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A small French company Moteur Development International produced an air-powered car which will be driven by compressed air stored in carbon-fibre tanks. These tanks are built into the chassis and are filled with air from a compressor in only 3 minutes - quicker than a battery car. These air compressors can be installed at each gas station.

When the car reaches 35 miles per hour its internal air compressor will start working to add more speed. The motor for compressor will run on small amount of fuel (eco-friendly or fossil fuel).
The driver would be able to choose between fossil or biofuels.
The designers say that on long journeys the air car will do about 120 m.p.g. And in town, it will be even cheaper.
One tank of gas will be enough to travel from Los Angeles to New York.
Of course, it sounds great - to have such a little fuel expense for your car.

And it is only a matter of time when first cars will be available for sale for about $5,000 to $15,000 which is an important consideration during our volatile gas prices.

These cars will also be good for the environment - they will produce almost zero emissions.

Air cars are designed to be much more lighter than conventional cars which will make them fuel efficient and help them go faster for longer periods of time.

You can watch very interesting YouTube movie about the air-powered car.



Guy Negre, an engineer and inventor of the first compressed-air engine has been working on it for the last decade. Still, the problem is in finding individual entrepreneurs to set up factories and to find investors to produce more air-powered cars. With just a few alterations, inventor Negre claims a hybrid version of his new engine could even be used to power aircraft.

To read more about air-powered cars go to http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/may/14/air-powered-car-hybrid-france.

-Peter Y.

The people at Portland International Airport are concerned about the environment too. According to this article PDX is moving towards using alternative fuels. "The Portland International Airport (PDX) in Oregon has become a dedicated user of alternative fuel vehicles in almost every aspect of operation from baggage loading vehicles to shuttle buses, police vehicles, and street maintenance equipment". Alternative fuels like biodiesel play an important role in lowering emission and vehicle longevity.

Go to this blogger post to learn more about what PDX is doing to go green.

Mr Sean Whyte complained in the media as an NGO that the NGOs are doing a good job telling the truth about the manner that the oil palm industry is run. This is a good start and the role played by the NGO is most appreciated. As far as Malaysian oil palm industry is concerned, there are numerous laws in this country to protect the industry, environment and the people. NGOs are encouraged to report to the authorities of any wrong-doings, and culprits would be punished. If no report of wrong-doings can be submitted, then NGOs are simply acting as critiques spreading erroneous assumptions and "it was reported" type "facts" again and again. Let us have the complaints in the form of an official report, and the industry through its enforcement body such as the MPOB can response to the complaints. Thank you for your good intention.

Yusof Basiron CEO MPOC